For a long time, carrier ships have been the dream of sea power, the naval vessels that fly and can spread their power all over the world. Russia, in particular, was so mesmerized by the idea of building the next supercarrier that this imaginary project was followed by enthusiasm, pride, and a desire to overtake its great sea rivals. It evolved from a dream to a reality in the late 1980s with the Ulyanovsk, which would upgrade the Moscow navy to a blue-water navy. However, the ship was one of the most famous “what-ifs” in naval history instead of being transformed into the latter.

The Ulyanovsk began construction in 1988 at the Mykolaiv shipyard, Ulyanovsk—official designation Project 1143.7—intended to be the first Soviet carrier on par with the American behemoths of the day. Whereas the Admiral Kuznetsov employed a ski-jump to take off, Ulyanovsk employed steam catapults, which could safely carry heavily loaded aircraft.

Almost 80,000 tons long and 324 meters, she would have been as big as the largest carriers in the world. Her nuclear power plant, with four reactors driving four turbines, produced a speed of 30 knots and a range limited only by the crew’s endurance.

The flight deck of the ship would be able to accommodate up to 70 aircraft: Su-33 fighter, Yak-44 early warning aircraft, and Ka-27 helicopters. The ship would also have substantial missile equipment consisting of P-700 Granit missiles, S-300 anti-aircraft systems, and some close-in weapon systems.

The term was straightforward. Ulyanovsk was more than a warship—it was a statement that the Soviet Navy could now challenge the carrier strike force of its adversaries. To Moscow, it was a badge of political presence and one of military necessities.

Fate, however, had other plans. The Soviet Union disintegrated at the time the carrier was breaking through. By the beginning of 1992, only a quarter of the ship had been constructed, and Moscow and Kyiv’s new governments had little money—or inclination—to finish it.

The expenses had increased far beyond early estimates to the billions. Economic survival now being the priority, the incomplete hull was ordered to be broken down into scrap metal. Soviet supercarrier dream expired on February 4, 1992, on the cutting room floor of a shipyard.

Waves of Ulyanovsk’s collapse still echo. Russia’s only carrier, the Admiral Kuznetsov, is now infamous for breaking down. Refurbishment fires, catastrophic crane collapse, and routine engine breakdowns have dogged the ship. Even when sailing, Kuznetsov has a tug escort attending it—insurance against early failure in the middle of the ocean. For most sailors, to work on the ship is now gallows humor, more ordeal than privilege.

But the idea of the Russian supercarrier persists. Designs for new classes, from the nuclear-powered Shtorm to concept designs connected with the navy’s modernization program, surface sporadically. But they remain on paper, hobbled by budget limitations and shifting strategic priorities. Ulyanovsk is a metaphor—and not a metaphor of what was built, but of what was lost.

There is a more important lesson out there. Yet, without a contemporary aircraft carrier, Russia’s power to send its naval flotilla all over the earth remains limited. The goal may be to have access everywhere, but the reality is that the Russian navy is still constrained by geography, budgets, and technology.

The Ulyanovsk disaster is only one historical example of a situation where the military presence was extremely extended, which was later brought down by unexpected economic and political issues. In the Kremlin’s case, this broken vessel is not only a symbol of bygone ambitions but also a source of puzzling issues that Russia is facing in trying to have a genuine navy.

When people refer to the best Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the top World War II fighter aces come to their minds first. The marvelous twin-boom design coupled with the incredible air fights of the world made it not only the most distinguishable but also the most famous among the rest of the sky. The Lightning was no longer just a vehicle; it was the brilliance and the promise of the United States Air Force, and through both wars in Europe and the Pacific, it went on to make a mark that was impossible to erase.

The P-38 myth first materialized in the late 1930s when the U.S. Army Air Corps was on a hunt for a speedster interceptor to take over as a high-altitude plane. Lockheed made a comeback with a rather atypical design. Hall Hibbard and the legendary Clarence “Kelly” Johnson led the company through the process of designing a twin-engine, twin-boom fighter with a cockpit nacelle between the booms. Regardless of the definition of the most unconventional setup by any pilot, the design got people hooked due to its aggressive looks and revolutionary technology.

The P-38 was more than a flashy show. It was the first American fighter to fly at over 400 mph on level ground, a speed record-breaker unprecedented. Turbo-superchargers gave it improved performance at high altitude, making it a prime contender for long-range escort and intercept sorties. The plane also included some other pioneering technologies of the era—counter-rotating propellers to offset torque effect, tricycle undercarriage to improve capability in ground operations, and a steering yoke instead of the classical stick—innovations which were novel to make it as efficient.

Its firepower was all focused in the nose, with four .50-calibers and a 20mm all crammed into one place. This permitted pilots to shoot from long distances without needing to alter their target, providing the Lightning with a deadly dogfighting advantage.

Early operational service did have its challenges, however. The P-38 had engine problems in cold weather in Europe, and the absence of cockpit heating made flight at high altitude uncomfortable and stressful. Except for twin-engine-accredited pilots, pilots struggled with the plane to take off, and early flight tests showed a “compressibility” flaw on dives, which resulted in temporary loss of elevator control—a flaw later fixed by the use of dive flaps.

Over the Pacific, the P-38 was supreme. Its range and range-at-altitude made it possible to escort bombers deeper into enemy country than any other aircraft. Its most famous mission was likely Operation Vengeance in 1943, the daring intercept and murder of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, architect of Pearl Harbor. The 1,000-mile flight to do that attested to the Lightning’s range, dependability, and strategic value, and cemented its status as a war machine.

In the Pacific, it was sometimes referred to informally by Japanese pilots as “two planes, one pilot,” a description of its twin-boom configuration and murder capability. German North African and European forces referred to it as “der Gabelschwanz-Teufel,” or fork-tailed devil, a reverent and fearful moniker that it acquired from enemy pilots.

The P-38 carried some of America’s best aces. Major Richard Bong, piloting the Lightning in the Pacific, downed 40 credited enemy aircraft and was awarded the Medal of Honor. Other top pilots, like Major Thomas McGuire and Colonel Charles MacDona, compiled high scores, illustrating how capably the airplane could fly with capable pilots onboard.

While the P-38 performed so badly in Europe—especially in close combat against the quicker German and Italian aircraft and in cold winter weather—it was eventually redesigned, better trained, and better armed to counteract most of these weaknesses. The Lightning was also extremely versatile and was an excellent reconnaissance airplane, taking most Allied air photographs in Europe, and served as a light bomber, ground-attack fighter, and pathfinder, showing the plane’s flexibility in many varied functions.

Over 10,000 P-38s were built at the close of World War II. They saw over 130,000 hours of combat time and destroyed thousands of hostile aircraft. Few remain airworthy today, but their memory lives on—to museums, histories, and veterans’ recollections, their pilots and their opponents in combat.

Retired Colonel Richard Heyman, a combat veteran pilot of the P-38, said that piloting the Lightning was a test and honor. It was concentration, guts, and skill, but it paid off in unbelievable power and performance and left its mark on every pilot who ever flew it.

The history of air battles is basically a history of the use of speed in aerial combat, starting from the ancient planes of World War I to today’s fast, high-tech jets. The first planes, such as the German Fokker D.VII and the French SPAD, were very basic, and their top speed was less than 135 mph. Meanwhile, during the Second World War, aircraft made of metal could often reach 450 mph. Today, it is not a big deal that jets go beyond 1,000 mph, and some even push their limits of human endurance and aircraft capability.

So why are fighter jets so hot? It’s a mix of aerodynamic design, raw power under the hood, and ideal altitude. Streamlined bodies, swept wings, and low drag allow these aircraft to slice through the air like razors. Mammoth engines—usually boosted with afterburners—give the power to blast through the sound barrier. The higher you go, the thinner the air gets, and the more resistant you become, which means still higher speeds. But raw power isn’t sufficient—designers have to balance speed with agility, weight, and stability using exotic materials and innovative tricks such as variable-sweep wings to tweak performance.

Speed is most commonly expressed in terms of Mach numbers, the velocity of an aircraft divided by the speed of sound. At sea level, Mach 1 is approximately 767 mph, although the figure varies with temperature and altitude. Supersonic flight (anything above Mach 1) presents unusual problems, from ear-shattering sonic booms to enormous aerodynamic forces. Most contemporary fighters cruise between Mach 1 and Mach 2.5, but a privileged few have gone way beyond.

Here’s a countdown of the top 10 fastest operational fighter planes ever.

10. McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II

Cold War icon with top speed of Mach 2.23 (1,470 mph), this adaptable plane set the standard for multi-role fighters.

9. Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

America’s stealthy air-dominance fighter, Mach 2.25 (1,500 mph), and sustained supersonic speed without afterburners.

8. IAI Kfir

An Israeli mix of Mirage styling and American engines, the Kfir has a Mach 2.3 capability and is valued for its quickness.

7. MiG-29 Fulcrum

This Soviet-era dog-fighting champion achieves Mach 2.3, with wonderful thrust-to-weight for combat at close range.

6. Grumman F-14 Tomcat

Star of Top Gun, flying to Mach 2.34 (1,544 mph), employed swing wings to perform from slow carrier landings to high-speed intercepts.

5. MiG-23 Flogger

Variable-sweep wing Mach 2.35 interceptor with a snappy engine, just as good at ground attack.

4. Sukhoi Su-27 Family

Such as the Su-30, Su-34, and Su-35, these Russian aircraft are renowned for flight dexterity and are capable of reaching Mach 2.35.

3. F-15 Eagle

Reaching a high of Mach 2.5, the Eagle is still one of the greatest air combat machines ever constructed.

2. MiG-31 Foxhound

It’s optimized for long-range, high-altitude interception and can accelerate to Mach 2.83.

1. MiG-25 Foxbat

The speed champion of operational fighters is currently at Mach 3.2 (2,190 mph), designed to pursue the high-flying American bombers of the Cold War. Of course, these are all dwarfed by the NASA/USAF X-15, a rocket-engine-test plane from the 1960s that roared to Mach 6.72 (4,520 mph) and above 350,000 feet of altitude, charting hypersonic flight.

Commercial airliners cruise at about Mach 0.8 (615 mph), with now-retired Concorde reaching a high of Mach 2.04 (1,559 mph). Even Concorde was outperformed by military zoomers such as the SR-71 Blackbird (Mach 3.32).

Speed provides fighter pilots with more than mere bragging rights—it’s a tactical multiplier. Swift aircraft can close on the enemy, evade missiles, and reposition in a heartbeat. The F-15EX, for instance, marries scorching speed to a heavy weapons load, turning it into an interception behemoth. But traveling that fast has severe prices to pay: structural stress, blistering heat, and eye-watering fuel consumption. The SR-71 skin could reach temperatures of well over 600°F, while fuel consumption was in excess of 5,000 gallons per hour.

Looking forward to the future, the competition is on to create hypersonic fighters. Designs such as the American SR-72 Darkstar, Russia’s MiG-41, and mysterious Chinese undertakings are poised to surpass the Mach 5 limit for in-service combat aircraft. Whoever succeeds in that competition won’t simply be the master of the skies—they’ll redefine them.

The US and Iranian military had their face-offs in the area for quite a while, but the interactions were always tense. MQ-1 Predator-type spy drones were quite often spotted flying near the Iranian skyline to gather data and, in a silent way, to test their limits. On the other hand, in 2013, a bizarre event happened. A brief, and somewhat cinematic, fight between a US F-22 Raptor and two Iranian F-4 Phantoms not only altered the whole process of managing air combat but also instantly made a very clear sign about the triumphant fighter pilot's team.

To appreciate the meaning of that event, it’s useful to take a step back in time to November 2012. That was when two Iranian Su-25 Frogfoots detected an American Predator drone about 16 miles off Iran’s coast. The Predator was not designed to dogfight—it’s sluggish, unarmored, and equipped for long-range surveillance. Nevertheless, it was immediately the target. Iranian pilots took several gun runs with their 30mm cannons.

The drone somehow survived intact—possibly because the Iranians were low on rounds. Whether the attack was intended as an actual kill or merely a demonstration shot, the message was received with crystal clarity by the U.S. As a result, drones operating near Iran started getting fighter escorts. At times, that was F/A-18 Super Hornets from nearby Navy ships. Other times, it was something much quieter—the F-22 Raptor, stealthily flying out of the United Arab Emirates.

Then March 2013 arrived. Another MQ-1 Predator was on a routine surveillance mission, again close to Iranian airspace. Again, Iranian fighter jets scrambled to intercept. But this time, the Iranians had a higher stake. It wasn’t the low-and-slow Frogfoots—it was two F-4 Phantoms, Cold War-era fighters that could still reach Mach 2 and were still packed with serious firepower. To Iran, the unarmed drone was sitting duck fare. But there was one huge thing that the Iranian pilots didn’t realize: they weren’t alone.

High above and entirely radar invisible, an F-22 Raptor flown by Lt. Col. Kevin “Showtime” Sutterfield was following along behind. Due to its stealth configuration, the Raptor had been tracking along behind the Iranian Phantoms without ever being detected. As one of the F-4s targeted the drone, Showtime crept silently down under the jet to inspect its guns.

Next, in a scene that seemed more out of a spy movie than real, he eased up alongside the Phantom and called over the radio. “You really oughta go home,” he told them. The Iranian pilots, realizing belatedly that they had been flying near a stealth fighter, didn’t protest. They turned the plane around and headed back to base.

No bullets were fired. No dogfight ensued. But that serendipitous, otherworldly conversation changed the dynamics of aerial power. The U.S. had proven its point—not with missiles, but with presence. The F-22’s stealth capability to linger undetected in enemy airspace gave the U.S. complete mastery over the encounter. For Iran, that they never realized the threat until it was alongside them was probably a shocking revelation.

Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Mark Welsh later recounted the tale publicly. He praised the skill and professionalism of Showtime, saying he was a Reservist who “flies the F-22… and flies it pretty darn well.” But beyond that, the tale illustrated how the combination of stealth, speed, and situational awareness in the Raptor made it the ultimate leveler, even against more than one enemy fighter. The F-22 turned the numbers game into a joke. Two to one didn’t count when one side couldn’t even see two.

It’s not the technology that makes battles like this significant. It’s the message. The presence of the Raptor in concert with that drone spoke volumes: the U.S. will protect its assets, and it can protect them in ways that make enemies uncertain of what they’re even dealing with.

But equally important was restraint. Rather than making it a confrontational exchange, the F-22 pilot exercised judgment over gunfire. That one calm warning probably averted a scenario that could have turned into an international incident.

Aside from the tactics, this encounter highlighted a gulf between fifth-generation stealth fighters and older planes still operated by many air forces, including Iran’s. The lesson: regardless of pilot experience or how quickly the jet, old technology can’t compete with new stealth. As aviation analyst Alex Hollings noted, this type of encounter highlights just how overpowering stealth platforms have become when combined with smart, calculated application.

There’s also a larger issue here regarding how the wars of the future are being fought. It’s not always which side possesses the largest missile or the fastest aircraft. It’s about perception-shaping, decision-influencing, and operating in manners that continue to keep your enemies guessing.

One of those changes was the 2013 F-22 event near the Iranian coast, which really showed the new, very different way of dealing with the same situation. Basically, it showed how three factors, being information, stealth, and timing, could altogether change the standards of engagement in a new way.

The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior is a tale of trying big things, fixing problems, and lasting—basically the same traits that characterized Cold War flight. Essentially, its design was the response to the inquiry: what features should a jet bomber have if it were able to carry nuclear weapons, had a long range, and could be sent to any location in the world with ease? Such a concept was the one that the U.S. Navy devised in the late 1940s to satisfy an urgent requirement.

When it first went into service in 1952, no one knew it would be in commission for almost forty years, making it one of the Navy’s longest-serving carrier aircraft.

It was no small task to design a plane capable of carrier operations. The Navy had something in mind larger and heavier than anything previously flown from a deck.

Douglas Aircraft engineers responded with a high wing, foldable for storage on carriers, and tricycle landing gear for smooth takeoffs and landings—an industry first for an aircraft of its size. Two high-thrust Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet engines provided the Skywarrior with the thrust and dependability it required for long missions carrying heavy loads.

In its A-3B configuration, the Skywarrior had some impressive statistics. A wingspan of slightly more than 22 meters, a top weight of more than 37,000 kilograms, and a speed of up to 530 knots at 10,000 feet. It was capable of reaching as high as 41,000 feet when laden with up to 5,800 kilograms of bombs, mines, or nuclear weapons.

A tail turret with twin 20 mm cannon offered defensive firepower, while sophisticated avionics—to include the AN/ASB-1A radar and AN/ASB-7 bomb-director—allowed for sophisticated, precision missions.

When the A-3 rolled into service in 1956, it was just as much a strategic bomber as the Navy had dreamed. But with changing military priorities, so too did the role of the aircraft change. By the time the Vietnam War broke out, the Skywarrior was being pressed into service for missions far removed from nuclear strike missions.

Retasked as the KA-3B aerial tanker, it stretched the range of carrier-based fighters and reconnaissance planes. In its EKA-3B version, it took it a step further—blending tanker services with electronic warfare, jamming the enemy’s radar while refueling friendly aircraft in mid-air.

Electronic intelligence collection was another specialty. The EA-3B variant traded bombs for advanced ELINT equipment and a crew of seven, including specialized electronic warfare pilots. These “spy” Skywarriors took off from carriers as well as shore bases, tracking Warsaw Pact movements during the Cold War, intercepting enemy communications over Vietnam, and even serving in the Gulf War.

The aircraft also performed as a workhorse reconnaissance machine. The RA-3B variant was loaded with high-resolution cameras and sensors, penetrating deep into enemy territory to gather critical information for mission planning. Its range, altitude, and endurance made it the go-to set of eyes for naval commanders.

The U.S. Air Force liked the design of the Skywarrior so much that they turned it into their vehicle: the B-66 Destroyer. Even though they looked like twins, the B-66 was modified for use on the earth, with enhanced landing gears, ejection seats, and Allison J71 engines. Just like the B-66 was also designed for different missions in the Navy, it had various forms of specialized units, such as those that went deeply into enemy territory to destroy targets and others that merely observed the area. Besides, the EB-66 electronic warfare plane, which was very important in interfering with North Vietnamese radar during the Vietnam War, was among the different types of the B-66 series.

In later years, the Skywarrior continued to be developed. ERA-3B variants were equipped with updated avionics, such as improved navigation equipment, including the Litton LN-211 Omega, upgraded communications equipment, enhanced weather radar, and more advanced identification systems.

The improvements enabled the plane to remain useful in the 1980s despite the fast pace of development in military aviation.

The A-3 did not depart until 1991, its duties assumed by newer and more accurate and technologically sophisticated aircraft.

But its legacy is not forgotten—locked in museums and the memories of the crews that operated “the Whale,” as affectionately known. It was not merely a bomber, but a multi-role behemoth that adjusted to every test hurled against it, a Cold War veteran that left a lasting imprint on naval aviation history.

Visualize a place or region in which the Cold War tensions had gotten out of hand and turned into an actual fight, whereby the sounds of jet engines could be heard, and pilots were making decisions in fractions of a second at a speed of nearly 700 miles per hour.

Such a spot is MiG Alley, the sky’s most notorious line over the Yalu River in Korea, where the battle between MiG-15 and F-86 Sabre has intertwined with the conflicts in the air. Don’t think of the Hollywood depiction of dogfights—what was going on was intense, unpolished, and life-or-death struggles.

MiG Alley was not just a nickname—it was a warning sign. MiG-15s, built in the Soviet Union, flew by pilots who were Russians in disguise, ready to lie in wait for UN troops. The pilots sported North Korean or Chinese uniforms, mime insignia, and even attempted to communicate in the local languages over the radio—though when tensions ran high, Russian crept through again.

The MiG-15 was revolutionary. Designed by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich, it went to war first as a swept-wing fighter and was able to outperform the American jets in dive, climb, and acceleration of all kinds. It was powered by a reverse-engineered Rolls-Royce Nene engine and carried a heavyweight punch with one 37mm gun and two 23mm guns—sufficient to knock a B-29 Superfortress out of the sky with one pass. Its appearance in November 1950 shook UN air forces to their foundations, making propeller-driven Mustangs and bombers exposed as never before.

America replied with the F-86 Sabre, a jet designed to take on the MiG. It had swept wings, a General Electric J47 turbojet, six .50-caliber machine guns, and a radar-ranging gunsight that made high-speed shooting a matter of precision, not luck.

The ensuing dogfights were unlike any during World War II—violent, short, and on the brink of the sound barrier. MiGs got up to superior altitudes and increased their speed more effectively, while Sabres were tailored to more aggressive control at lower altitudes and to winning by dive-and-glide tactics.

The aviators adjusted their tactics by utilizing clouds, sunlight, and even gunfire from the enemy’s ground as protection.

To defy an intensely firing barrage of his comrades’ anti-aircraft guns, Soviet ace Sergei Kramarenko dived through it only to escape his chasing Sabres, thus proving the war had never been more dangerous.

The competition was personal as well as mechanical. Soviet pilots Nikolai Sutyagin and Yevgeny Pepelyaev notched dozens of kills, and U.S. aces James Jabara and Joseph McConnell turned into legends. Many instances in history were not disclosed for a long time.

An example is Royce Williams being in a “dogfight” against seven MiGs that was only unveiled fifty years later. It was common practice to keep these skirmishes secret due to the high tension between the parties, as they suspected that such a revelation would escalate the conflict further.

MiG Alley was not merely an area of conflict – it served as a challenge to aerial fighting skills. The techniques of warfare were altering so rapidly that the aviators had to figure out for themselves that height, surprise attack, and working together were vital factors. The Americans were able to use the combination of technology and preparation to their benefit, among which antigravity suits and radar gunsights are to be mentioned. The Soviets were cycling their top pilots in and out of Korea, essentially operating the war as their own training center to sharpen their abilities.

The lessons of MiG Alley remain flexible even today. In fact, every element of air combat today, starting from the fighter jet design to the pilot’s training, is largely influenced by the learning that took place in those Korean skies. The fables of aviators going missing, secret burial places, and planes turning into myths are the Cold War period legacy, which was much more intimate, fought at supersonic speed, and where the winner was unknown.

The B-2 Spirit has been at the core of the U.S. Air Force’s stealth, range, and strategic power for a very long time. Essentially, the B-2 is the very icon of the global air power projection’s revolution that came to be through its marathon flights halfway across the globe and its getting through even the most impenetrable defense on Earth. However, with its successor already undergoing flight testing, the B-2’s era is slowly but surely coming to an end. The following is an overview of the aircraft’s past, its abilities, and the technology that it is equipped with.

8. Passing the Torch to the 11 Raider

The B-2’s replacement, the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider, flew for the first time in November 2023. Designed for increased stealth and versatility—and capable of flight with or without a crew—it will one day replace the B-2 fleet. The U.S. Air Force anticipates ordering about 100 of them, so the Raider will form the backbone of next-generation strategic bombing raids, able to carry both nuclear and conventional munitions with advanced sensors and networked fighting systems.

7. Starting from Scratch on Stealth

Northrop Grumman didn’t just build a plane when they created the B-2—they created the tools and techniques to make it a reality. The airframe is nearly all carbon fiber composite, consisting of more than 10,000 discrete components, providing both strength and radar-absorbing properties.

In the 1980s and ’90s, this type of production necessitated equipment built to specific requirements and innovative 3D modeling software. Nowadays, the process is much more inclusive—automated fiber placement machines can be rented and fitted in weeks, and composite fabrication is now part of university curricula globally.

Although the most sensitive technology of stealth remains classified, construction with these materials is no longer the uncommon activity that it once was. 

6. Living On Board During 44-Hour Missions

Endurance is just as much a component of the B-2’s mission as stealth. There are only two pilots on board, so the cockpit has been designed for both work and survival during missions that last almost two days. Behind the seats is a space for sleeping, along with a microwave, refrigerator, pantry, and even a small toilet. Pilots are chosen not only for their flying skills but also for their ability to work well together in high-pressure, cramped environments where teamwork is everything.

5. The Price of Perfection

At a cost of more than $2 billion per plane and operating costs reaching $135,000 per flight hour, the B-2 is the most costly plane in the world.

Its maintenance needs are just as drastic—after each mission comes anywhere from 36 hours of maintenance, and its sensitive radar-absorbing skin has to be kept in climate-controlled hangars. With so much attention, the fleet’s readiness rate for missions sticks at around 50%, a testament to how challenging it is to make these bombers mission-ready.

4. Unique Heavy Hitter with a Special Arsenal

The B-2 carries as much as 40,000 pounds of ordnance within its two bomb bays, ranging from the precision-guided JDAMs to nuclear warheads. Most significantly, it is the only American aircraft that can deploy the 30,000-pound GBU-57 Massive Ordnance Penetrator, capable of penetrating 200 feet of hardened concrete.

This provides the B-2 with unparalleled capability against deeply buried targets out of reach of other bombers.

3. Going the Distance

Perhaps the B-2’s greatest asset is its range. Without refueling, it has a flight distance of about 6,000 nautical miles, but actually, it allows it to attack anywhere on the planet from its Missouri home base through air-to-air refueling. The bomber’s most noted accomplishment was a 44-hour combat mission to Afghanistan in 2001—the longest combat sortie in history. It has flown in Kosovo, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, and most recently, Iran.

2. The Science of Being Invisible

The stealth of the B-2 is a union of form and material. Its flying wing shape, carbon-graphite skin that absorbs radar, titanium parts, and its deeply buried engines all combine to reduce radar, infrared, acoustic, and even contrail signatures. At altitude, its radar cross-section is roughly the size of a seabird—small enough to pass by the most advanced detection systems.

1. Operation Midnight Hammer: The B-2’s Defining Moment

The biggest B-2 mission ever occurred during Operation Midnight Hammer, when seven bombers flew out of Missouri and bombed Iran’s buried nuclear facilities at Fordow, Natanz, and Isfahan.

Accompanied by 125 supporting aircraft and a submarine that launched dozens of Tomahawk cruise missiles, the B-2s delivered 14 bunker busters in 25 minutes. Iran’s defenses never stood a chance. It was the second-longest B-2 mission ever flown and a dramatic demonstration of its capacity to penetrate the most heavily defended airspace on the planet.

World War II constituted the time when the technological revolution in the field of aviation was greatly accelerated by several leaps. As an outcome of each side’s frantic competition to command the skies, the engineers created these unprecedented, peculiar, and even crazy aeroplanes that nobody had ever seen before. The list could include rocket-powered interceptors or experimental flying wings. Not only were these vehicles pushing the boundaries of what was technologically possible, but sometimes, they were even challenging the limits of reason. One can learn about the 10 most outstanding yet weird aircraft during those days, and each one’s unique story of great inventions and ambitious ideas.

10. Martin PBM-5A Mariner

The PBM-5A Mariner was one of America’s most powerful patrol bombers, even beating the legendary PBY Catalina at several tasks. Designed by the Glenn L. Martin Company, it boasted a gull wing that left its engines above the spray of salt, and retractable wing floats to cut drag. Its bomb bay lay hidden in the fuselage, so it could fly more quickly when weighed down with bombs. Subsequent versions were even equipped with jet-assisted take-off rockets for short, high-angle climbs—ideal for rescue missions in choppy seas. Staffed by nine and equipped with several .50-caliber cannons, the Mariner paid its dues in the Battle of the Atlantic by sinking ten German submarines. Of the over a thousand that were built, just one survives today.

9. Curtiss XP-55 Ascender

The XP-55 Ascender resembled something out of a science fiction strip—its engine was mounted behind the pilot, it featured a canard wing at the front, and dual vertical tails mounted at the end of its wings. The unorthodox “pusher” design was supposed to provide improved visibility and concentrate firepower in the nose. Unfortunately, it had unpredictable stalls and never produced the desired performance. Three were constructed, and two were destroyed in crashes. The one that remains is a testament to how far engineers would push things to experiment.

8. Vought V-173 “Flying Pancake”

The bizarrely endearing V-173 became known by its nickname due to its body being round and flat and its massive propellers—over sixteen feet in diameter each. Conceived by Charles Zimmerman, the plane was able to lift off over an extremely short distance, and with a powerful headwind, it could nearly fly vertically. Its peculiar shape created lift over its entire surface, which provided helicopter-like maneuverability in flight. Although testing was successful, the Navy’s interest was already turned toward more speed-oriented jet aircraft, and the Flying Pancake never entered production.

7. Focke-Wulf 190D “Long Nose”

Designated as the “Langnasen” to German airmen, the Focke-Wulf 190D was an interception-capable high-altitude fighter equipped with a liquid-cooled Jumo 213 engine. Its top speed was raised to approximately 440 mph with this improvement and enabled it to engage Allied bombers at altitude. Equipped with 20mm and 13mm cannons, it was a formidable foe, but wartime production interruptions meant that it was never produced in the quantities that could have made the difference. Now, only a few remain on display in museums. 

6. Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa (“Oscar”)

The Ki-43 Hayabusa, or “Peregrine Falcon,” was a long-legged and quick-flying fighter that surprised Allied pilots at the beginning of the war. Highly agile, it was one of Japan’s most ubiquitous fighters, with over 5,900 produced. Early models had no armor or self-sealing fuel tanks, but subsequent improvements corrected those limitations without destroying the plane’s legendary agility. There is only one complete example of the type preserved.

5. Mitsubishi A6M7 Reisen (Zero)

The Mitsubishi Zero was legendary enough for its speed and maneuverability, but the A6M7 model added even more capabilities. It was built for dive-bombing from smaller carriers with strengthened wings and bomb racks instead of a centerline fuel tank. This model was one of the last Zeros to fly, as the war went against the Japanese. Although more than ten thousand Zeros were produced in total, relatively few intact aircraft remain in original condition today.

4. Horten Ho 229

The Ho 229 was in a class by itself—a streamlined jet-propelled flying wing decades ahead of its time. Its unconventional shape cut both drag and radar signature, and its twin jet motors promised up to 600 mph speeds. The aircraft took to the air in prototype in 1944, but the war’s end came before it could go into production. Still, it was one of the most sophisticated ideas to come out of the war.

3. Messerschmitt Me 262

The Me 262 was the first operational jet fighter in the world, and when it emerged, it startled Allied pilots. It had a top speed of around 540 mph and nose-mounted heavy cannons, and could tear through bomber formations before the bombers had time to respond. Reliability and fuel shortages held it back from altering the war, but its design left a gigantic mark on postwar aircraft development.

2. Heinkel He 178 and He 280

The Heinkel He 178 is the first jet plane to have ever flown, which it did in 1939. Following on from this achievement, Heinkel produced the He 280, the first purpose-built turbojet fighter. With a top speed of in excess of 550 mph, the He 280 was a leading contender, but rival designs—such as the Me 262—got to production first. Nevertheless, these initial jets represented the beginning of a new age for flight.

1. Mitsubishi J8M1 Shusui / Ki-200

The number one position is held by the Mitsubishi J8M1 Shusui, a rocket-powered interceptor designed with Germany’s Me 163 Komet as its model. Developed to combat bombers at high altitudes, it was able to ascend to breathtaking heights in just minutes and achieve scorching speeds—but for only five minutes, as the fuel would then be depleted. Technical information from Germany came in pieces, so Japanese engineers had to improvise much of the development. Unfortunately, the prototype crashed during its initial test flight, and it killed the test pilot. The war broke out before the aircraft were further developed.

These planes are a testament to the daring experiments and risky leaps in technology that characterized WWII aviation. Some of them were breakthroughs, some failures, but all left their unique imprint on the history of aviation.